Law: Fundamental Rights and Duties

The Fundamental Rights are defined as the basic human rights of all citizens. These rights, defined in Part III of the Constitution, applied irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste, creed, or gender. They are enforceable by the courts, subject to specific restrictions. The Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines for the framing of laws by the government. These provisions, set out in Part IV of the Constitution, are not enforceable by the courts, but the principles on which they are based are fundamental guidelines for governance that the State is expected to apply in framing policies and passing laws.

The Fundamental Duties are defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote a spirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India. These duties, set out in Part IV–A of the Constitution, concern individuals and the nation. Like the Directive Principles, they are not enforceable by courts unless otherwise made enforceable by a parliamentary law.

Let us learn about Fundamental Rights and Duties in the given video.

Law: Constitution of India

The Constitution is the supreme legal document of the land. All other laws have to conform to the Constitution. It contains laws concerning the government and its relations with the people.  A constitution is concerned with 2 main aspects:-

1.The relation between the different levels of government and

2. Between the government and the citizens.

The document containing laws and rules which determine and describe the form of the government, the relationship between the citizens and the government, is called a Constitution. The constitution for proper understanding is divided into broad areas of Fundamental Rights, Directive Principals, Executive and State. The main objective is contained in the preamble and each area stated above relates to the whole system of Governance, through State; i.e. Legislature, Executive and Judiciary called as Trimurti of the Nation.

Let us learn about the Constitution of our country through the given video.

Law: Preamble of Indian Constitution

The preamble to the Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets out guiding people and principles of the document, and it indicates the source from which the ordinary document derives its authority, meaning, the people.The hopes and aspirations of the people as well as the ideals before our nation are described in the preamble in clear words. It may be considered as the heart and soul of Constitution. The preamble can be referred to as the preface which highlights the entire Constitution. It was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the Constituent Assembly and came into effect on 26th January 1950.

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens

 JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

 LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

 EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all

 FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;

 IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this 26th day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

Criminology and Law: Harassment of victim during complaint/court

In very simple language harassment is a word that describes any kind of ongoing torment. The acceptable definition of harassment is unwanted conduct on the grounds of race, gender, sexual orientation etc. which has the aim or objective of either violating the claimant's dignity, or making an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment for them. The exploitation is from a family member that is not involved in the list under domestic violence. Harassment need not have to be of a sexual nature, however, and can include offensive remarks about a person’s sex.  Police have the authority and the duty to question people suspected of committing crimes and victim too. The parent or guardian of a minor who is the aim of harassment may seek a restrictive order on behalf of the minor.

Let us learn about harassment, types of harassment, consequences of harassment and  harassment of victim during complains and in the court in the given video lecture.

Criminology and Law: Role of Victim in Crime

Victimolgy is the study of victimization, including the relationships between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system — i.e., the police and courts, and amendments bureaucrats — and the association between sufferers and other social groups and organizations, such as the media, businesses, and social movements. Victimolgy is though not constrained to the study of victims of crime only but can comprise different provisions of human rights abuses.

“Victimolgy” is a hypothetical scientific discipline which studies statistics that defines processes and causal associations associated to victimizations. This comprises proceedings prominent to the victimization, the victim’s experience, its aftermath and the activities taken by society in response to these victimizations. Therefore, Victimolgy consist of study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, happenings, influences, retrievals, and replies by people, administrations and beliefs related to victimizations.

Let us learn about the role of victim in crime in the given video.

Criminology and Law: Police : Organization and Administration

Police are one of the most ubiquitous organizations of the society. The policemen, therefore, happen to be the most visible representatives of the government. In an hour of need, danger, crisis and difficulty, when a citizen does not know, what to do and whom to approach, the police station and a policeman happen to be the most appropriate and approachable unit and person for him. The police are expected to be the most accessible, interactive and dynamic organization of any society. Their roles, functions and duties in the society are natural to be varied and multifarious on the one hand; and complicated, knotty and complex on the other. Broadly speaking the twin roles, which the police are expected to play in a society are maintenance of law and maintenance of order. However, the ramifications of these two duties are numerous, which result in making a large inventory of duties, functions, powers, roles and responsibilities of the police organization.  

Let us learn about the role of Police in dealing Criminals, Police Strength and organization in India, procedure to file complaints of crime and criminal and also what is the Police accountability and commitment along with the role of Police in Court and Defense.

Questioned Documents: Instruments used in document analysis: ESDA and VSC

In addition to various types of microscopes like magnifying lens, compound microscope, stereo microscope and comparison microscope that are being used for the analysis of questioned documents. Some instruments such as Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA) and Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) are also used for the analysis of the documents that are in question. These instruments are only meant for document analysis. ESDA is a forensic device used to detect indented writings in paper. VSC combines sophisticated digital imaging and multi-wavelength LED technology with a clear and efficient software interface, to provide a complete solution to the examination of all questioned documents.

Let us all learn about ESDA and VSC in the given video lecture.

Questioned Documents: Plastic Currency

The term plastic currency is used predominantly in reference to the hard plastic cards that are issued by the banks or an authority that provides certain rights to the customer or the user, some of them being able to make payments, enter into a secure area with many such other uses.

 · The term plastic currency has been used in different settings to describe wide variety of payments systems and technologies.

· Plastic currencies are the alternative to the cash or the standard money.

· Plastic currency is the generic term for all types of cards such as, Bank cards, Credit cards, Smart cards, etc.

· Plastic currency was introduced in 1930 and now it is an essential form of money.

· Citi Bank was the first bank in 1991 to launch credit card in India.

Let us learn about the various types of plastic currencies, their characteristics and forensic analysis in the given video lecture.

Questioned Documents: Tools Used in Questioned Document Analysis

The most significant tool of a document examiner is his or her vision. In addition to this tool, the outer tools which facilitate the examiner to see, evaluate and record more than is evident to the unaided eye. The microscope is the instrument that makes it possible to see physical evidence on documents which would otherwise remain invisible and useless. The normal unaided human eye can differentiate only 250 separate lines to the inch. This means that the small details which involve proportions or separations of less than 1/250th of an inch are not seen by the eye, and sees them as a connected, solid mass. These tools can be grouped into six categories:

1. Basic measuring tools

2. Magnification (magnifiers/ microscopes)

3. Light Sources

4. Special Instruments

5. Photography

6. Computer

Let us learn about these tools in the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics: Imaging of hard disk and other media

Disk Imaging is a fundamental process in digital forensics. Storage devices are one of the many evidences we encounter at the crime scene. It is of prime significance that every evidence needs to be handled with care and there should not occur any alteration during the investigation of digital crime. During digital investigation, there are chances that the data collected may get intentionally or accidentally destroyed, at such times; the evidence cannot be present in the court. Investigator has to follow the proper chain of custody. To avoid changes in seized storage devices one instruction that is to be followed by investigator is “DO NOT TOUCH THE ORIGINAL EVIDENCE”, it means that we are not suppose to perform any operation related to analysis directly on original device.

In disk imaging, we make exact copies of storage devices or its partition and then store it in a larger storage or directly burn it on another device. It looks like a copy- paste operation but it is not. In copy paste operation, we just move data from one location to another location but there is no possibility that the source addressing is maintained. Also in copy-paste operation, data existing on target location is not overwritten because it is stored only in free location. Whereas in cloning or imaging data and its location is considered. In an image, file data is stored along with its source location and in cloning process data from source will be replicated as it is and old address scheme is considered.

Let us learn through the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics: Intellectual Property Crimes and Computer Security

Intellectual  property  rights  are  the  legal  rights  that  cover  the  privileges  given  to  individuals who are the owners and inventors of a work, and have created something with their intellectual creativity. Individuals related to areas such as literature, music, invention, etc., can be granted such rights, which can then be used in the trade practices by them. The originator or designer acquires exclusive privileges against any exploitation or use of work without his prior knowledge and permission. However, the rights are fixed for a limited period of time to sustain balance. Intellectual property can be pilfered (i.e., infringed or defrauded) in several ways. For example, copyrighted works,  such  as books,  music, movies,  business  software  or  games, may be dishonestly invaded by duplicating or  distributing unlicensed copies  of  such  works  either online   or   by   manufacturing   and   distributing   infringed CDs   or   DVDs   containing   the  unauthorized  content.  A trademark may be trespassed by marketing merchandises, brands or other packaging containing an imitation mark.  An exceedingly protected trade  secret  can  be underhandedly fiddled from  its  owner  either  by  a  company  insider  or  by somebody outside a company and used to profit an opponent.

Let us learn about all this in the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics: DOS and DDOS Attacks

The attacks on the computer systems are wide. It ranges from physical damaging to the system to remotely stealing the data. There are many types of attacks on computer system. Now a day’s every computer is connected to internet, and internet has no owner; it’s a kind of free resource but you have to pay for your service providers. Our software culture is also moving from standalone applications to web based/ distributed applications. The advantage of web based applications is that it is available remotely for a whole team of people to work simultaneously. So every system connected to the internet has a threat. Anyone who is connected to the internet can try to access any resource through the internet.

The basic intention behind  attacks on internet  is to make resource unavailable for the genuine users. Denial of Service (DoS) can be done by multiple ways. There are special tools available for DoS. The basic concept is that Computer Server plays vital role in distributed software’s.

Let us learn about DOS and DDOS attacks in the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics: Programme Manipulation

To get work finished by computer there are some logical/computational instructions in computer memory, this set of instructions is known as a program. There are special people known as 'Software Developers' or 'Programmers' who use available programming language to write program. After loading these programs in computer we can execute them. Basically these are instructions for CPU (Central Processing Unit) which governs the COMPUTER.

A program is developed for specific tasks, means we use ability of computer to perform a specific set of sequential actions. We can write a program to just display "Hello" or we can write a program to develop an Operating system. Size of the program is from few KB to few GB. It depends on how many functionalities we are implementing in a program.

Computer can understand only BINARY language so if we want to issue instructions to computer then they should be in BINARY language only. And binary language is a sequence of '1’s' and '0’s'. But for human it is very difficult to understand or write the program/instructions in binary. So there are options which include use of high level programming language. These languages are very close to 'English' so user can easily read or write the program. And there is another program /software which are known as Compiler or interpreter which converts the programs from higher level language to machine level language or binary language.

Let us learn in detail in the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics: Obscenity and Pornography

The concept of Obscenity is way too complicated. It is not that much easy to calculate the degrees of an obscene conduct or rather a conduct. An act which may be normal for a particular individual, community or area may not be deemed appropriate to another one. For one individual it may be a piece of art while for others it may be a nasty activity. For example, a commercial of a Condom in a national television channel may be supposed by some audience as an offensive (obscene) program while some audience may take it as the requirement of present time. A common understanding of the term ‘obscenity’ would indicate the violation of prevalent moral codes in words, representations or actions that are available to the public at large. It is basically associated with matters that contain sexually explicit material.

Pornography can be understood as sexually explicit representation which has the purpose or intention of sexually arousing its audience. Besides, paedophilic psychology has cursed the human society and modified the conventional pornography to the most displeasing disinclined involvement of children in form of Child Pornography. The term “child pornography” implies conventional pornography with child subjects. The term is retained because it is the expression most voluntarily recognized by the public on the whole. Pornographic sites open the syndicate to legal accountability by not preventing the access of such material because the technology exists.

To know more let us watch the given video.

Digital Forensics: Spamming

Spamming is the process of crowding the user’s mail inbox with unsolicited or junk mails. It is generally used to advertise about any product or services but the real problem arises for the user when the mails contain viruses and malicious software that can damage the user’s computer or data. It is often a source of scams, computer viruses and offensive content that takes up valuable time and increases costs for consumers, business and governments. Software companies offer their products for free but they need to make money in one way or another, so they use several methods to earn. One of those methods is selling ads. Many websites have banner ads or pop- up windows with advertisements in them that are visible when the software is used. Advertising companies pays the software manufacturer to place the ads in their product, allowing the software manufacturer to offer their product for free to the customer.

Let us learn more about spamming in this video lecture.

Digital Forensics: Classification of Computer Crimes

Computer technology is advancing rapidly every day and the gap between the computer technology and the computer security is growing wider, providing vast number of opportunities for computer crimes. This problem is compounded by the fact that many of the computer users are unaware about the computer crimes and the criminals take benefit of this fact. It is necessary for computer users to have a good knowledge about the computer crimes and their associated security threats. They must understand meaning of computer crime, their types, and ways to recognize and prevent them.

Let us about the classification of computer crimes in the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics: Characteristics of Computer Crimes

Digital technology is surrounding in all strides of existence, all over the world and has conveyed the factual significance of globalization. At the one end cyber system delivers prospects to communicate and at the other end certain individuals or community exploit its control for criminal purposes. Criminals exploit the Internet and other network communications which are universal in scope. Condition is disturbing that Cyber- crime is an imminent and is talk of the town in every arena of the society and system. Hypothetically and essentially this is an innovative subject for scholars and is developing exponentially. Lot of work has been done and endless has to be done because the innovation or upgradation of novel technology leads to the technical crime, i.e., the digital or the cyber- crime or the e-crime. This is because day by day a new technique is being developed for doing the cybercrime and several times the appropriate investigating technique to challenge that newly cyber- crime is lacking. Cybercrime is any criminal activity involving computers and networks. It can range from deception to unwanted emails also known as spams. It can consist of distant theft of administration or business secrets through unlawful trespass into remote systems around the world. Cybercrime includes anything from downloading proscribed music archives to pilfering millions of moneys from online bank accounts. Cybercrime also comprises non- monetary crimes, such as generating viruses on other computers or posting classified business information on the Internet. Most cybercrimes cannot be placed into a single crime category, which makes statistical recording of this activity limited at best. Internet associated activities are as susceptible to crime and can lead to persecution as effectually as common physical crimes. The forms of crimes that are presently going on have existed long before the Internet was around. By virtue of the gadgets being used today to commit cybercrimes, criminals are now more unspecified and provided with a virtual market of available victims. The accountability falls on individuals to defend themselves and their families through safe online practices. Cyber criminals are no different than conventional criminals in that they want to make their cash as quickly and easily as possible.

Let us known more about it in the given video lecture.

Criminology 10: Female Crime

In India, due to social, cultural and traditional reasons women are considered as homemakers and thus, their involvement in violent crime is seen as a matter of surprise and disappointment. It is also because of the erroneous belief that crime always takes place outside the house and not inside. The area of criminality of women is still not a zone of priority concern, probably because there number is very small. It is also because in many criminal activities they are accomplishes of men, rather than carrying out the crime themselves and executing the way men do.

Let us learn about the crimes by women through the given video lecture.

Criminology 9: Crime against Women

The term “crime against women‟ literally includes; all the direct/indirect mental/physical cruelty to women. Each and every crime which is aimed specifically against women and in which only women are victims could be characterized as Crime against Women. It is equally important here to clarify the concept of “Violence against women” (VAW). Violence which is also called abuse, includes any sort of misbehave and physical aggression. VAW is a collective term that refers to those violent acts which are exclusively and primarily directed against women. When violence is committed at home it becomes domestic violence and involves family members such as children, spouse, his parents or the parents or relatives of a woman herself.

Let us learn more about VAW in the given video.

Criminology 8: Domestic Crime

Domestic violence (also named domestic abuse or family violence) is violence or other abuse by one person against another in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. It may be termed intimate partner violence when committed by a spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner, and can take place in heterosexual or same-sex relationships, or between former spouses or partners. Domestic violence can also involve violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It takes a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, and sexual abuse, which can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical abuse such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that results in disfigurement or death. Domestic murders include stoning, bride burning, honor killings, and dowry deaths.

Globally, the victims of domestic violence are overwhelmingly women, and women tend to experience more severe forms of violence. They are also likelier than men to use intimate partner violence in self-defense. In some countries, domestic violence is often seen as justified, particularly in cases of actual or suspected infidelity on the part of the woman, and is legally permitted. Research has established that there exists a direct and significant correlation between a country's level of gender equality and rates of domestic violence, where countries with less gender equality experience higher rates of domestic violence. Domestic violence is among the most under reported crimes worldwide for both men and women. Due to social stigmas regarding male victimization, men face an increased likelihood of being overlooked by healthcare providers.

Let us all learn about Domestic Crime through the given video lecture.

Criminology 7: Juvenile Delinquency

For  most  of  the young  people  of  our  gradually  changing  society,  traditional  patterns guiding  the  relationships  and  transitions  between  family,  school  and  work  may  become quite challenging.  The smoothness of socialization process is ensured by social relations. But  these  days  the  life  style  has  become  so  complex  that  such  relations are  collapsing. Maturity   gap extension  and,   arguably,   the  limited   opportunities of  becoming an  independent  adult  are  the  major factors  that  influence  bonding  with friends and family,  choices and educational opportunities and more over the lifestyles. 

Nowadays youth, irrespective of social origin, gender or nationality , are subjected to risks and are  being presented with new situations and circumstances, some beneficial  and some potentially harmful. Quite often, advantage of such illegal opportunities is being taken as young people commit different crimes, become drug addict and may become violent.

In the given video lecture let us understand the term Juvenile Delinquency, types and causes of juvenile delinquency, different theories of crime applicable to juvenile delinquency and law against juvenile delinquency.

Questioned Documents: Plastic Currency

The term plastic currency is used predominantly in reference to the hard plastic cards that are issued by the banks or an authority that provides certain rights to the customer or the user, some of them being able to make payments, enter into a secure area with many such other uses.

 · The term plastic currency has been used in different settings to describe wide variety of payments systems and technologies.

 · Plastic currencies are the alternative to the cash or the standard money.

 · Plastic currency is the generic term for all types of cards such as, Bank cards, Credit cards, Smart cards, etc.

 · Plastic currency was introduced in 1930 and now it is an essential form of money.

 · Citi Bank was the first bank in 1991 to launch credit card in India.

Let us know more about the Plastic currency through the given video lecture.

Criminology 6: Factors in Crime

What is Crime ?

1. The word  crime is derived from the Latin word "crimen (criminis)" which arrived from the Greek word "krima" ("egklema") meaning at first "judgement" (krisis)  and conviction. That is the Greek word for “crime” is the conceptual ancestor of the modern concept "crime".

2. Violation of law committed by someone as an outcome of which, conviction by a court is punishment, punishment is chiefly a severe one such as imprisonment.

3. Unlawful activity.

4. An offense in terms of disobedience of morality.

5. An unjust, ridiculous, or outrageous act or condition. In simple language crime is illegal or immoral activity.

In this video lecture we will learn about:

What is crime? 

What are the types of crime? 

Factors responsible for crime. 

What is effect of family, poverty, education and movies and media on crime in society? 

What is neighborhood factor in crime?

Digital Forensics: Introduction to Computer Crimes

The Computer crimes can be classified as: -Violent, Non-Violent computer crimes. The

use of viruses, worms and Trojans to infect a system and to spread itself over the network is  not  new but  the  advancements achieved  in these causes irreversible  destruction to the infected  system  and  the  network. Computer  crimes  have  risen  so  dramatically  over  the recent years that they have replaced the old-fashioned, organized crimes.

Let us all learn about these crimes in detail through the given video lecture.

Criminology 5: Theories of Criminal Behaviour

Theories of Criminal Behaviour

Theories and causes of crime: Three models of criminal behavior

Classical and Neo-classical Theories
Classical Theory
Beccaria's classical explanation
 Neo-classical Theory

 Biological and physiological theory:
 Hereditary
Psychosurgery
Chemical methods of control
Other
Physiology

Psychological Theory

Sociological Theory: Émile -Durkheim‘s Traditional sociological theories

Geographical Theory: Responses from geographic theories of crime

Economic Theory: Response from Economic theory to crime includes

Let us all learn in detail about these Theories of Criminal Behaviour listening to the given video lecture.

Modus Operandi

Modus operandi is a Latin phrase, translated as "method of operation”. The term is used to describe one's procedure of working, particularly in the context of criminal investigations. It is often abbreviated as M.O. In general, modus operandi is the behaviour indispensable for the effective commission of a crime.  

Let us learn about Modus operandi and its importance in detail through the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics: Introduction to Networks and Types of Networking

A network structure is made up of minimum two or more computers or nodes that are connected in an organized way to share resources, exchange files and allows electronic communications. The computers on network are generally linked though cables, radio waves, telephone lines, infrared light beams, or satellites. A network may be defined as a multipurpose connection, which allows an individual computer to do more.

The computer networks are required for the following reasons:

 1. File sharing: Networks allows us to share data among the computers of other networks making the files available to one and all at any time, wherever required. The data becomes available to each one who is a component of the network.

 2. Resource sharing: Resources like the printer, servers and the internet are shared among these networks. It helps in reducing the cost but increasing the data and resource availability.

3. Communication and collaboration: Being a component of the network means we are able to unite with different services and computers of different networks, thus increasing the communication with the rest of the humankind.

 4. Remote access: Remote access allows us to access the resources remotely from anywhere without being present at the place where the computer is. This makes accessing the resources easy.

For more details go through the given video lecture.

Questioned Documents: Secret Writing

Secret Writing: Cryptography, Encrypt- Decrypt, Steganography

All the way through history, military had used secure communications through encryption of the data. It was in 1980’s that the need for secure commercial and private communications had grown under the name of the Information Age. Internet and the World Wide Web is a platform that allows community to correspond information, mail and commerce in a digital medium. This has caused in an augment in the need for information security.

Historical Cryptography

• Ancient Egypt
• Greece
• Rome
• Alberti- Vigenere Cipher
• Jefferson Wheel Cipher

War Driven Cryptography- WWI

• Zimmerman Telegram
• Choctaw Codetalkers

War Driven Cryptography- WWII

• Enigma Encryption Machine
• Purple

 Modern Encryption- Part 1

•  One-time Pad
• Pseudo-Random Number Generator
• Symmetric Key Encryption (Private-Key)

Modern Encryption- Part 2

• Asymmetric key Encryption (Public-Key)
• Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
• RSA Encryption

Steganography

Let us learn about all this in detail through this video lecture.

Criminology 4: Social, Political and Organized Crimes

A crime can be well-defined as any act that is against laws or the legal justice system. There are various kinds of crimes, from crimes towards individuals to victimless crimes and violent crimes to white collar crimes. With every form of offence there also originates different sociological phenomena and demographic profiles.

Crimes against Persons: Crimes towards persons, also known as private crimes, comprise homicide, serious assault, sexual assault, and burglary. Personal crimes are disproportionately spread in the United States, with young, urban, poor, and racial sections doing these offenses more often than others.

Crimes against Property:  Property crimes comprise robbery of property deprived of bodily harm, such as burglary, larceny, auto theft, and arson. Like personal offenses, young, urban, poor, and racial minorities usually commit these offenses more than others.

Crimes against Morality: Crimes against ethics are also known victimless crimes because there is no petitioner, or victim. Prostitution, illegal gambling, and prohibited drug intake are all examples of victimless crimes.

White-Collar Crimes: White-collar crimes are offences that are done by individuals of good social position who commit offences in the relation to their profession. This comprises cheating (robbery of money from one’s employer), insider trading, and tax evasion and other abuses of income tax laws. White-collar crimes generally produce less anxiety in the public mind than other kinds of crime, though in relations of full dollars, white-collar crimes are even more significant for society. Nevertheless, these offenses are usually the least inspected and less accused.

For more details go through the given video lecture.

Digital Forensics : Operating Systems

An Operating System is a program which performances as an interface between the computer system users and the computer hardware components. It displays for a comprehensible setting in which a user may effortlessly develop and execute programs. Else, hardware knowledge would be compulsory for computer programming. Operating Systems obscures the complexity of hardware from apathetic users. The Operating Systems accomplishes resources and distributes them to specific programs and users. With the management of the Operating Systems, a programmer is cleared of difficult hardware deliberations. Operating Systems affords services for:

• Processor Management 
• Memory Management 
• File Management 
• Device Management 
• Concurrency Control  

A running program does one very simple thing, i.e., it executes instructions. Billions of times every second, the processor procures instructions from memory, decodes it, and executes it. After it is finished with this instruction, the processor moves on to the next instruction, and so on, until the program finally concludes. There is a body of software, in actual fact that is in control for making it easy to run programs, allowing programs to share memory, facilitating programs to interact with devices. That body of software is known as the Operating System (OS), as it is in charge of making sure the system operates appropriately and proficiently in an easy-to-use manner.

Drugs of Abuse: Designer Drugs

Over ages, humans fortunately discovered that certain ingested plants were a source of unique satisfying feelings, beyond satiety. Some were mildly affecting (e.g. nicotine, caffeine), others enhanced mood or altered perception, reduced pain, intoxicated, or produced euphoria (e.g. alcohol, marijuana, hallucinogens, opiates, cocaine). In the past two centuries, consumption of these psychoactive substances expanded rapidly. Decontamination of the active chemicals, distribution by manoeuvres for maximum effect and global marketing contributed to this expansion. Modern chemistry has produced a huge range of variations of these plant products, paralleled by an unprecedented level of adverse biological, behavioral, medical and social consequences. Following this phenomenon, Designer drugs are produced to be similar to, but not identical with Psychoactive Drugs that are illegal to possess or sell for human consumption, unless for medical purposes. A recurring threat to public health, the Designer Drug sub-culture has burst out over the past decade. The rapid expansion can be attributed to a convergence of crucial technological advances combined with deceitful, aggressive marketing schemes.

Digital Forensics: Computer Software

Computer cannot do anything on its own. It is the user who instructs computer; what to do, how to do and when to do. In order to perform any task, a set of instructions in a particular sequence is given to the computer. These sets of instructions are called Programs. Software refers to a set of programs that makes the hardware perform a particular set of tasks in particular order. Software not only gives directions  to the computer to manage its internal resources, but also facilitates the user to use a computer system to provide specific business value. The computer is able to do nothing until it is instructed by software. Although computer hardware is, by design, wide-ranging purpose, software allows the user to instruct a computer system to execute specific functions that deliver business value. The systems software existing on a computer system provides the competences and restrictions within which the application software can function. If a computer is to function, software is not optional. Everything that a computer does, from the time the power switch is turned on until the system is shut down, is under the control of software. Basically, Software is the set of instructions that operate the computer, execute particular functions or tasks, and manipulate the data. For software (the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed. That is, the instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer can understand. Without a program, a computer is useless. 

Software can be either ‘proprietary’ (also called ‘closed’) or ‘open’. Proprietary software is privately maintained and controlled. A proprietary software scheme or technique is one that is held by a company, which will generally not disclose specifications that would let other companies to replicate the product. Gradually, proprietary software is seen as a drawback in several institutes; users have a preference to use ‘open’ software, which is software designed exhausting specifications that are widely accessible. The benefit of open software is that any person can make add-on products for it as they can appreciate in what manner it was designed. People using open software can mix and match products from different manufacturers. By making software public, however, a manufacturer permits others to duplicate its product, which many manufacturers do not want.

To know more details about the Computer Software watch the given video lecture.

Drugs of Abuse: Natural Drugs

NATURAL DRUGS

For thousands of years, natural products have played a very significant role in health care and prevention of diseases. The prehistoric civilizations of the Indians, Chinese and North Africans provide inscribed evidence for the use of natural sources for curing many diseases. Conventional natural product chemistry approaches facilitated a vast selection of bio-active secondary metabolites from terrestrial and marine sources to be discovered. 

Natural products have been the most effective source of potential drug leads. Natural products once assisted humanity as the source of all drugs, and higher plants provided most of these therapeutic agents. 

However, it was not until the 19th century that scientists isolated active components from various medicinal plants. 

• Friedrich Serturner isolated morphine from Papaver somniferum in 1806, and since then natural products have been widely selected for their medicinal purposes. 
• Atropine obtained from Atropa belladonna, strychnine, a Central Nervous System stimulant,
• Ziconotide, identified from a cone snail, Conus magus, and Taxol are a few examples of active components taken out from natural sources. 

Drug detection from the usual sources mostly involves two methodologies, principal one is chemically determined which is discovery natural activities for disinfected complexes and second is the biologically driven in which bioassay‐guided approach starts with crude extracts or it can be combination of the both. Natural product chemistry is one of the oldest branches of the chemical sciences, its origin dating back to the first decades of the 19th century, or even before. 

Natural Products act as lead molecules for the synthesis of various potent drugs. Natural products entities depend not only on plants but also on other form of life like algae, fungus, sponges, molluscs, etc. Microorganisms have been widely screened for antibiotics since Fleming’s discovery of the antibacterial activity of Penicillium.

Let us learn about more Natural Drugs in the given video lecture

Criminology 3: Types of Crime

"Crime is an activity that breaks the law and enforcement”. Crime is not the problem of one home or one person; it is the problem of whole society. It costs not only in currency every year but also represents an  even  greater  loss  in  terms  of  human  values,  happiness and their morals. In recent years the crime graph is more appalling not only in India but all over the world.

According to the legal definition crime “implies any act done or committed in violation of   public   law,   and   for which the   person   is   liable to   punishment   by   indictment, presentment or impeachment”.  Crime is a universal   phenomenon.   Its   etiology   is extremely complex and the manifestations vary according to time, place and the individual. It also varies with historical periods, modes of life, economic conditions and social attitudes. 

Crime  has  been  with  mankind  since  the  beginning  of  recorded  history.  Ever  since  man has attempted to find the most effective deterrents against crime, society has framed the theories of punishment and established the prison system to control the criminal behavior but crime has continued unabated. The idea of a crime free society is utopian. Thus, the researchers suggest that we should place emphasis on prevention of crime.

Let us learn about the various types of crimes through this given video lecture.

Criminology -2: Crime, Criminal and Criminology

Crime is an intended act or violation of criminal law (statutory or case law), committed without defense

or justification, and sanctioned by the state as an offence or misdemeanor ”

A person who commits crime is a criminal. But technically, unless a person is convicted  of crime by the Court of Law, he cannot be designated as a criminal.  If pronouncement is  pending by the court then he is referred to as an „alleged criminal‟.  Against this backdrop,  crime may be defined as “any act done or committed in violation of public law, for which  the person is liable to punishment by indictment, presentment or impeachment.

Criminology is defined as the “scientific learning of crime as a social phenomenon” or “a  science  that  deals with  different  aspects  of  behavior  that  violates  criminal law”. In  its  broader sense, it is referred to as the “entire figure of information regarding  the  causes  and  prevention  of  crime,  punishment  and  correction  of  criminals,  and process of correctional institutions and agencies”.

To know more about the causes of crime and growth of criminology go though the given video lecture.

Instrumentation: Measurements, Signals and Data

A signal may be defined as the output of a transducer that is responding to the chemical system of interest. The signal may be separated into two parts, one caused by the analyte(s) and the other caused by other components of the sample matrix and the instrumentation used in the measurement. This latter part of the signal is known as noise. 

Although the ability to separate significant data-containing signals from meaningless noise has constantly been a desirable property of any instrument, it has become imperative with the demand for progressively more sensitive measurements. The amount of noise present in an instrument system determines the smallest concentration of analyte that can be accurately measured and also fixes the precision of measurement at larger concentrations.

 Noise reduction (or signal enhancement) is a primary consideration in obtaining useful data from measurements that involve either weak signal sources or trace amount of analyte(s). 

The two main methods of enhancing the signal are 

(1) the use of electronic hardware devices, such as filters, or equivalent computer software algorithms to process signals from the measurement as they pass through the instrument and 

(2) post measurement mathematical treatment of data. Among the more useful post measurement methods are the statistical techniques.

In addition to signal enhancement, these techniques aid in identifying sources of error and determining precision, while providing a method for an objective comparison of results. This module will deal with some common noise-reduction techniques and briefly review important statistical methods typically used in the treatment of instrumental data.

After watching this video lecture you will learn about:

· Signal to Noise Ratio

· Sensitivity and detection limit 

· Sources of Noise 

· Hardware techniques for Signal to Noise enhancement 

· Software techniques for Signal to Noise enhancement 

· Data treatment by filtering, Smoothing, and averaging

Digital Forensics: Computer Peripherals and Hardware

A computer peripheral device can be defined as any device that is connected to the computer externally, which is not originally a part of the computer’s core architecture. The core architecture of the computer includes the motherboard, with power supply attached to it along with the Central Processing Unit (CPU) pre-installed; all of this contained together. Everything else can be said to be a peripheral device. However, there are several other elements that are required for a computer to actually function, they being the hard drive or the RAM i.e. the Random- Access Memory.
The term peripheral device is used to refer any external device other than the computer core. These external devices are used to connect to the computer and increase its functionality. The best example for this to explain is the use of Printer. Once it is connected to the computer, it can be used to print a number of documents.

For more details go through the given video lecture.

Criminology 1

Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social levels. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioral and social sciences, drawing especially upon the research of sociologists , psychologists , philosophers , psychiatrists , biologists, social anthropologists, as well as scholars of law.

Let us learn more about Criminology from the given lecture.

Instrumentation: Introduction to Instrumental Methods

The use of instrumentation is an exciting and fascinating part of chemical analysis that interacts with all the areas of chemistry and with many other fields of pure and applied science. Analyses of Martian soils, the body fluids of racehorses and Olympic athletes, the engine oil of commercial and military jet aircraft, and even the Shroud of Turin are examples of problems that require instrumental techniques. Often it is necessary to use several instrumental techniques to obtain the information required to solve an analytical problem. 

Analytical instrumentation plays an important role in the production and evaluation of new products and in the protection of consumers and the environment. Instrumentation provides the lower detection limits required to assure safe foods, drugs, water, and air. The manufacture of materials whose composition must be known precisely, such as the substances used in integrated circuit chips, is monitored by analytical instruments. The large sample through puts made possible by automated instrumentation often relieve the analyst of the tedious tasks associated with chemical analysis. Thus, the analyst is freed to examine components of the analytical system, such as sampling methods, data treatment and the evaluation of results.

For more details watch the given lecture.

Forensic Psychology: Psychiatric Disorders: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a brain disorder marked by an ongoing pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.

Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity are the key behaviors of ADHD. Some people with ADHD only have problems with one of the behaviors, while others have both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity.Most children have the combined type of ADHD.

In preschool, the most common ADHD symptom is hyperactivity.

Scientists are not sure what causes ADHD. Like many other illnesses, a number of factors can contribute to ADHD, such as:

• Genes
• Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, or drug use during pregnancy
• Exposure to environmental toxins during pregnancy
• Exposure to environmental toxins, such as high levels of lead, at a young age
• Low birth weight
• Brain injuries

ADHD is more common in males than females, and females with ADHD are more likely to have problems primarily with inattention. Other conditions, such as learning disabilities, anxiety disorder, conduct disorder, depression, and substance abuse, are common in people with ADHD. 

For more details go through the given video.